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By Countryside Staff
Water is the most crucial element for staying alive. It's more important than food.
Everyone must have enough safe drinking water, which generally means one gallon per person per day. Needs will differ according to age, physical condition, lifestyle and climate.
This doesn't include water for cooking, bathing, washing dishes and clothes, and pets or other animals. Large dogs may need as much as a gallon a day, while cats can do well with just a pint a day. If you have other livestock your water needs obviously soar. But in that case, water taken directly from a river or stream, without purification, will probably be okay.
Untreated water straight from the tap should keep for six months when stored in clean, durable containers. However, it must be changed periodically. Bacteria-free water, which means treatment with bleach or other compounds, will keep up to several years. Heat, light, deterioration of the container and other factors can cut this figure substantially.
Water should be stored as far as possible from paint and petroleum-based products, acids or anything with strong odors such as fertilizer or common household cleaning solutions. Lower-grade containers are permeable to certain gases and should be avoided whenever possible.
You'll need to locate at least one other water source, since even several hundred gallons of stored water won't last long. Assume any water not stored or purchased is contaminated, especially in perilous or unstable times. A mountain stream could look pristine, but still be polluted.
If you can find only marginal water, first strain the debris through a paper towel, clean cloth or coffee filter, then use one of the following methods.
Boiling
Short of using a very high-quality water filter, this is the most reliable method for killing microbes and parasites. Bring water to a rolling boil and keep it simmering for at least several minutes. Add one minute of boiling to the initial 10 minutes for every 1,000 feet above sea level. Cover the pot to shorten boiling time and conserve fuel.
Liquid chlorine bleach
Use 5.25 percent sodium hypochlorite that is free of soap or phosphates. To treat one gallon of water, add eight drops (1/8 teaspoon) of bleach to clear water and 16 drops (1/4 teaspoon) to cloudy water.
When purifying five gallons, add 32 drops (1/2 teaspoon) to clear water or 64 drops (one teaspoon) to cloudy water. By purifying a larger quantity of water, you will cut bleach usage 20 percent over the one gallon at a time method. After treating with chlorine, mix well and allow the water to stand for 30 minutes before using. An eye dropper can be used to measure the dosage.
Bleach that is more than a year old loses approximately half its potency. Adjust the dosage accordingly.
Dry chlorine
Also known as calcium hypochlorite, it is used primarily in swimming pools. Since it is a powder, it has the significant benefit of extended shelf life. Dry chlorine may be stored for up to 10 years with minimal degradation if it is kept dry, cool and in an airtight container.
This is a far better choice for quantity storage than liquid bleach. Dry chlorine is commonly available at swimming pool supply stores as well as many hardware and grocery stores.
For chlorinating water in rain tanks, the recommended dosage is seven grams dry (1/4 ounce by weight) or 40 milliliters (1.35 ounce) per 1000 liters (264 gallons). Let the water stand for 24 hours before drinking. To maintain chlorination, add one gram (.035 ounce) of dry chlorine or 4 ml (.135 ounce) weekly per 1,000 liters.
Iodine
If no instructions are provided on the bottle, use 12 drops per gallon of water. Increase the dosage if the water is of dubious quality. Mix well and allow the water to stand for 30 minutes before using. Iodine does have an unpleasant aftertaste.
Hydrogen peroxide
This is a suitable disinfectant, as it oxidizes the water. Peroxide degrades even more rapidly than chlorine, and it needs to be kept in a dark bottle that blocks out sunlight. Potency could be an issue if it has been stored for a long period.
Testing for peroxide residual levels is more difficult than testing for chlorine content. Residuals need to be measured to ensure that disinfection is thorough.
The bacteria content of your water source is a major factor to monitor. There are various methods for testing the bacteriological level, but measuring residual levels is a much simpler task.
"Residual" is what remains from the original dosage. For example, if one cup of water has 20 parts per million of impurities in it, the disinfectant dosage needs to be at least 20 PPM but no more than 25 PPM to prevent ill effects. A dosage of 23 PPM of the active chlorine content will have a 3 PPM free residual while showing a 23 PPM total chlorine level.
Peroxide would potentially have the benefit of breaking down to oxygen and water, but its use is also made more difficult by that tendency.
A common calculation for daily usage is the required dosage in parts per million times the volume treated in gallons divided by 120,000, which is a constant number. This will give you the number of pounds needed for a particular dosage.
Purification tablets
They are either iodine or chlorine based. One or two tablets will purify a quart of water depending on the contamination level and length of time allowed for treated water to stand. Follow instructions on the package. These tablets are among the more convenient and affordable ways to purify water. Not every brand of purification products (especially iodine tablets) will kill giardia.
Stabilized oxygen
People who have used this method generally prefer it to chlorine or iodine. Both treatments have shown some side effects if used for an extended period of time, and iodine and chlorine give water an off taste. Stabilized oxygen doesn't have side effects or add unpleasant flavors to water, and it also offers health benefits.
For long-term storage, treat one gallon of chlorinated water by adding 10 drops of stabilized oxygen. Add 20 drops if the water hasn't been chlorinated. Use five to 20 drops per eight-ounce cup of giardia-contaminated water.
Stabilized oxygen is the new kid on the block in water purification, so it isn't as widely known as other methods. Among the chlorine dioxide (a form of stabilized oxygen) products on the market are Aerox, Genesis 1000, Dynamo 2, Aerobic 07 and Aquagen.
Water purifying units
There are literally dozens of units on the market. Some are designed for campers, while others are made to be installed on household plumbing.
If you plan to rely heavily on a water filter for purification during a crisis, choosing the right one will be a vital decision. Durability, dependability and a company's track record are important factors to consider. "Test drive" the unit to see how easy or strenuous it is to pump. Ease of use should be a high priority for anyone with limited strength or physical ailments.
What is the average water output? This is especially important for families or groups. Will this filter eliminate giardia and bacteria? Don't assume that the filter you choose will be 100 percent effective.
Can the filter handle the really nasty stuff – stagnant, muddy, even brackish water? Are replacement elements and parts easy to locate?
How often does the filter have to be replaced? Sporting goods and camping stores as well as a number of discount stores and mail-order firms offer water filters.
One model to consider is the Swiss-made Katadyn. Although it isn't cheap, the Katadyn is popular with serious outdoorsmen, Third World travelers and others who frequently deal with polluted water. To improve the taste of treated and stored water, pour the liquid from one clean container to another several times. This will help re-oxygenate the water and remove some of the "blah" effect that comes with long-term storage.
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II. USE ONLY WATER THAT HAS BEEN PROPERLY DISINFECTED FOR DRINKING, COOKING, MAKING ANY PREPARED DRINK, OR FOR BRUSHING TEETH
1. Use bottled water that has not been exposed to flood waters if it is available.
2. If you don’t have bottled water, you should boil water to make it safe. Boiling water will kill most types of disease-causing organisms that may be present. If the water is cloudy, filter it through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clear water for boiling. Boil the water for one minute, let it cool, and store it in clean containers with covers.
3. If you can’t boil water, you can disinfect it using household bleach. Bleach will kill some, but not all, types of disease-causing organisms that may be in the water. If the water is cloudy, filter it through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clear water for disinfection. Add 1/8 teaspoon (or 8 drops) of regular, unscented, liquid household bleach for each gallon of water, stir it well and let it stand for 30 minutes before you use it. Store disinfected water in clean containers with covers.
4. If you have a well that has been flooded, the water should be tested and disinfected after flood waters recede. If you suspect that your well may be contaminated, contact your local or state health department or agriculture extension agent for specific advice.
(U.S. federal agencies and the Red Cross recommend these same four steps to disinfect drinking water in an emergency. Please, read the text below for important details about disinfection.)
EMERGENCY DISINFECTION OF DRINKING WATER (additional information)
In times of crisis, follow advice from local officials. Local health departments or public water systems may urge consumers to use more caution or to follow additional measures than the information provided here.
Look for other sources of potable water in and around your home. When your home water supply is interrupted by natural or other forms of disaster, you can obtain limited amounts of water by draining your hot water tank or melting ice cubes. In most cases, well water is the preferred source of drinking water. If it is not available and river or lake water must be used, avoid sources containing floating material and water with a dark color or an odor. Generally, flowing water is better quality than stagnant water.
Examine the physical condition of the water. When emergency disinfection is necessary, disinfectants are less effective in cloudy, murky or colored water. Filter murky or colored water through clean cloths or allow it to settle. It is better to both settle and filter. After filtering until it is clear, or allowing all dirt and other particles to settle, draw off the clean and clear water for disinfection. Water prepared for disinfection should be stored only in clean, tightly covered, containers, not subject to corrosion.
Choose a disinfection method. Boiling and chemical treatment are two general methods used to effectively disinfect small quantities of filtered and settled water.
Boiling is the surest method to make water safe to drink and kill disease-causing microorganisms like Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, which are frequently found in rivers and lakes. These disease-causing organisms are less likely to occur in well water (as long as it has not been affected by flood waters). If not treated properly and neutralized, Giardia may cause diarrhea, fatigue, and cramps after ingestion. Cryptosporidium is highly resistant to disinfection. It may cause diarrhea, nausea and/or stomach cramps. People with severely weakened immune systems are likely to have more severe and more persistent symptoms than healthy individuals. Boil filtered and settled water vigorously for one minute (at altitudes above one mile, boil for three minutes). To improve the flat taste of boiled water, aerate it by pouring it back and forth from one container to another and allow it to stand for a few hours, or add a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of water boiled.
If boiling is not possible, chemical disinfection of filtered and settled water collected from a well, spring, river, or other surface water body will still provide some health benefits and is better than no treatment at all.
When boiling is not practical, certain chemicals will kill most harmful or disease-causing organisms. For chemical disinfection to be effective, the water must be filtered and settled first. Chlorine and iodine are the two chemicals commonly used to treat water. They are somewhat effective in protecting against exposure to Giardia, but may not be effective in controlling more resistant organisms like Cryptosporidium.
Chlorine is generally more effective than iodine in controlling Giardia, and both disinfectants work much better in warm water.
* You can use a non-scented, household chlorine bleach that contains a chlorine compound to disinfect water. Do not use non-chlorine bleach to disinfect water. Typically, household chlorine bleaches will be 5.25% available chlorine. Follow the procedure written on the label. When the necessary procedure is not given, find the percentage of available chlorine on the label and use the information in the following table as a guide. (Remember, 1/8 teaspoon and 8 drops are about the same quantity.)
Available Chlorine
Drops per Quart/Gallon of Clear Water
Drops per Liter of Clear Water
1%
10 per Quart — 40 per Gallon
10 per Liter
4-6%
2 per Quart — 8 per Gallon (1/8 teaspoon)
2 per Liter
7-10%
1 per Quart — 4 per Gallon
1 per Liter
(If the strength of the bleach is unknown, add ten drops per quart or liter of filtered and settled water. Double the amount of chlorine for cloudy, murky or colored water or water that is extremely cold.)
Mix the treated water thoroughly and allow it to stand, preferably covered, for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor. If not, repeat the dosage and allow the water to stand for an additional 15 minutes. If the treated water has too strong a chlorine taste, allow the water to stand exposed to the air for a few hours or pour it from one clean container to another several times.
* You can use granular calcium hypochlorite to disinfect water. Add and dissolve one heaping teaspoon of high-test granular calcium hypochlorite (approximately ¼ ounce) for each two gallons of water, or 5 milliliters (approximately 7 grams) per 7.5 liters of water. The mixture will produce a stock chlorine solution of approximately 500 milligrams per liter, since the calcium hypochlorite has available chlorine equal to 70 percent of its weight. To disinfect water, add the chlorine solution in the ratio of one part of chlorine solution to each 100 parts of water to be treated. This is roughly equal to adding 1 pint (16 ounces) of stock chlorine to each 12.5 gallons of water or (approximately ½ liter to 50 liters of water) to be disinfected. To remove any objectionable chlorine odor, aerate the disinfected water by pouring it back and forth from one clean container to another.
* You can use chlorine tablets to disinfect filtered and settled water. Chlorine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased in a commercially prepared form. These tablets are available from drug and sporting goods stores and should be used as stated in the instructions. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for each quart or liter of water to be purified.
* You can use tincture of iodine to disinfect filtered and settled water. Common household iodine from the medicine chest or first aid kit may be used to disinfect water. Add five drops of 2 percent U.S. or your country’s approved Pharmacopeia tincture of iodine to each quart or liter of clear water.
For cloudy water add ten drops and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes.
* You can use iodine tablets to disinfect filtered and settled water. Purchase commercially prepared iodine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection at drug and sporting goods stores. Use as stated in instructions. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for each quart or liter of filtered and settled water to be purified.
ONLY USE WATER THAT HAS BEEN PROPERLY DISINFECTED FOR DRINKING, COOKING, MAKING ANY PREPARED DRINK, OR FOR BRUSHING TEETH
Summary of Key Points:
Filter murky or colored water through clean cloths or allow it to settle. It is better to both settle and filter.
Boiling is the surest method to make water safe to drink and kill disease-causing microorganisms like Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, which are frequently found in rivers and lakes.
To improve the flat taste of boiled water, aerate it by pouring it back and forth from one container to another and allow it to stand for a few hours, or add a pinch of salt for each quart or liter of water boiled.
When boiling is not practical, certain chemicals will kill most harmful or disease-causing organisms. Chlorine (in the form of unscented bleach) and iodine are the two chemicals commonly used to treat water.
You can use a non-scented, household chlorine bleach that contains a chlorine compound to disinfect water. (Remember, 1/8 teaspoon and 8 drops are about the same quantity.)
You can use tincture of iodine to disinfect filtered and settled water. Common household iodine from the medicine chest or first aid kit may be used to disinfect water.
Tincture of iodine. For cloudy water add ten drops and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes.
Office of Water 4606-M EPA 816-F-06-027 August 2006 www.epa.gov/safewater
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III. Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water
In times of crisis, local health departments may urge consumers to use more caution or to follow additional measures. If local public health department information differs from this advice, the local information should prevail.
When the home water supply is interrupted by natural or other forms of disaster, you can obtain limited amounts of water by draining your hot water tank or melting ice cubes. In most cases, well water is the preferred source of drinking water. If it is not available and river or lake water must be used, avoid sources containing floating material and water with a dark color or an odor.
When emergency disinfection is necessary, examine the physical condition of the water. Disinfectants are less effective in cloudy water. Filter murky or colored water through clean cloths or allow it to settle, and draw off the clean water for disinfection. Water prepared for disinfection should be stored only in clean, tightly covered, containers, not subject to corrosion.
There are two general methods by which small quantities of water can be effectively disinfected. One method is boiling. It is the most positive method by which water can be made bacterially safe to drink. Another method is chemical treatment. If applied with care, certain chemicals will make most water free from harmful or pathogenic organisms.
METHODS OF EMERGENCY DISINFECTION
Boiling: Vigorous boiling for one minute will kill any disease-causing microorganisms present in water (at altitudes above one mile, boil for three minutes). The flat taste of boiled water can be improved by pouring it back and forth from one container to another (called aeration), by allowing it to stand for a few hours, or by adding a small pinch of salt for each quart of water boiled.
Chemical treatment: When boiling is not practical, chemical disinfection should be used. The two chemicals commonly used are chlorine and iodine. Chlorine and iodine are somewhat effective in protecting against exposure to Giardia, but may not be effective in controlling Cryptosporidium. Therefore, use iodine or chlorine only to disinfect well water (as opposed to surface water sources such as rivers, lakes, and springs), because well water is unlikely to contain these disease causing organisms. Chlorine is generally more effective than iodine in controlling Giardia, and both disinfectants work much better in warmer water.
CHLORINE METHODS
Chlorine Bleach: When boiling is not practical, chemical disinfection should be used. Common household bleach contains a chlorine compound that will disinfect water. The procedure to be followed is usually written on the label. When the necessary procedure is not given, find the percentage of available chlorine on the label and use the information in the following tabulation as a guide.
| Available Chlorine | Drops per Quart of Clear Water |
| 1% | 10 |
| 4-6% | 2 |
| 7-10% | 1 |
(If strength is unknown, add ten drops per quart of water. Double amount of chlorine for cloudy or colored water or water that is extremely cold.)
The treated water should be mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand, preferably covered, for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor; if not, repeat the dosage and allow the water to stand for an additional 15 minutes. If the treated water has too strong a chlorine taste, it can be made more pleasing by allowing the water to stand exposed to the air for a few hours or by pouring it from one clean container to another several times.
Granular Calcium Hypochlorite: Add and dissolve one heaping teaspoon of high-test granular calcium hypochlorite (approximately 1/4 ounce) for each two gallons of water. The mixture will produce a stock chlorine solution of approximately 500 mg/L, since the calcium hypochlorite has an available chlorine equal to 70 percent of its weight. To disinfect water, add the chlorine solution in the ratio of one part of chlorine solution to each 100 parts of water to be treated. This is roughly equal to adding 1 pint (16 oz.) of stock chlorine to each 12.5 gallons of water to be disinfected. To remove any objectionable chlorine odor, aerate the water as described above.
Chlorine Tablets: Chlorine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased in a commercially prepared form. These tablets are available from drug and sporting goods stores and should be used as stated in the instructions. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be purified.
TINCTURE OF IODINE
Common household iodine from the medicine chest or first aid kit may be used to disinfect water. Add five drops of 2 percent United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.) Tincture of iodine to each quart of clear water. For cloudy water add ten drops and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes.
IODINE TABLETS
Commercially prepared iodine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased at drug and sporting goods stores. They should be used as stated. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be purified.
WATER TO BE USED FOR DRINKING, COOKING, MAKING ANY PREPARED DRINK, OR BRUSHING THE TEETH SHOULD BE PROPERLY DISINFECTED.
Office of Water 4606-M www.epa.gov/safewater EPA 816-F-05-023 September 2005
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IV. In Emergency, Disinfect Drinking Water by Boiling or Chemical Treatment
6/27/2008
AMES, Iowa — Iowans dealing with unsafe drinking water have two options for disinfecting small quantities of water, says Sam Beattie, food science and safety specialist with Iowa State University Extension.
“You can boil the water or you can chemically treat it. In either case, be careful.” Beattie cautioned.
Boiling is the most positive method by which water can be made bacteriologically safe to drink, he said. Certain chemicals, if applied with care, will make most waters free of harmful or pathogenic organisms.
“The bacteria, viruses and parasites that were contained in the floodwaters are likely to have contaminated many wells. These illness-causing organisms survive in water for a long time and need to be killed,” Beattie said.
“Boiling water is the preferred disinfection method, especially for people whose immune systems are compromised,” he added.
Disinfect water to be used for drinking, any type of prepared drink, ice, cooking, washing cuts, brushing teeth and rinsing clean dishes.
Store clean, disinfected water in a sanitized container. Use 200 ppm of chlorine bleach to disinfect dishes and water storage vessels. If the container is threaded, make sure to sanitize the lid and threads, he said.
Where do you get the water? When the water supply to a home is interrupted by natural or other disasters, limited amounts of potable water may be obtained by melting ice cubes, Beattie said. Water from the hot water tank can be used, but may have higher mineral concentrations and would be more suitable for washing plates and utensils.
“Do not use water from the toilet tank for drinking. It is likely to be contaminated,” Beattie said.
Generally, groundwater is the preferred source of drinking water, he continued. If it is not available and surface water must be used, avoid sources that contain floating material or have a dark color and/or odor.
People with rural wells should boil their water if the safety of their well water is questionable, he added.
When emergency disinfection is necessary, consider the water’s physical condition, Beattie continued. “Cloudy water is harder to disinfect and you won’t be able to disinfect it to the same degree as clear water.”
Filter murky or colored water through clean cloths or allow particles to settle. Beattie recommended. “Then draw off or decant the water, from the top, that you will disinfect. Store water that you’ve prepared for disinfection in clean, tightly covered containers that will not corrode.”
Boiling water for emergency disinfection Boil water at a rolling boil for one minute. This will kill any disease-causing microorganisms present in the water.
“You can improve the flat taste of boiled water by pouring it back and forth from one clean container into another (this is called aeration), by allowing it to stand for a few hours or by adding a pinch of salt for each quart of water boiled,” Beattie said.
Chemical treatment for emergency disinfection When boiling water is not practical, chemical disinfection can be used, Beattie noted. The two most common chemicals are chlorine and iodine. These chemicals are available in various forms.
Chlorine Bleach. Common household bleach contains a chlorine compound that disinfects water. Usually the procedure to follow is written on the label. If it is not, find the percentage of available chlorine on the label and use the following dosages as a guide. (See Table 1, Available Chlorine in Household Bleach for Use as Water Disinfectant.) Do not use bleach with scented or color-safe additives or bleaches containing soaps.
Mix thoroughly and allow the treated water to stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor; if it does not, repeat the dosage and allow it to stand for another 15 minutes. If the treated water has too strong a chlorine taste, it can be made more palatable by allowing the water to stand exposed to the air for a few hours or aerate using the method described above.
Granular Calcium Hypochlorite. Add and dissolve one heaping teaspoon of high-test calcium hypochlorite (approximately 1/4 ounce) for each two gallons of water. This mixture produces a stock chlorine solution. To disinfect water, add the stock chlorine solution in a ratio of one part chlorine solution to 100 parts of water to be treated. This is roughly equal to adding 1 1/4 ounce of stock solution to each gallon of water. To remove any objectionable chlorine odor, aerate the water as previously described.
Chlorine Tablets. Chlorine tablets containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased in a commercially prepared form. These tablets are available from drug and sporting goods stores and should be used as stated in the instructions. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for each quart of water.
Tincture of Iodine. Common household iodine from the medicine chest or first aid kit may be used to disinfect water. Add five drops of 2 percent United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.) tincture of iodine to each quart of clear water. For cloudy water, add 10 drops and let the solution stand for 30 minutes.
Iodine Tablets. Commercially prepared iodine tablets containing the necessary dosage for disinfecting drinking water can be purchased at drug and sporting goods stores. Use as stated in the instructions. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be disinfected.
Contacts :
Sam Beattie, Food Science/Human Nutrition, (515) 294-3357, beatties@iastate.edu
Laura Sternweis, Extension Communications and External Relations, (515) 294-0775,lsternwe@iastate.edu
Table 1. Available Chlorine in Household Bleach for Use as Water Disinfectant
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V. Ohio State University Extension
Food, Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Emergency Disinfection of Water Supplies
AEX-317-91
Floods, storms and extended power failures can make it impossible to use your well for a drinking water supply. When traveling or camping, you may have to use water from a unsanitary supply for drinking. How can you ensure you do not get sick from drinking contaminated water?
Boiling is extremely effective in disinfecting water. Vigorous boiling for one minute kills bacteria, including disease-causing organisms and giardia cysts (which cause severe gastrointestinal illness). Any heat source, such as an electric or gas range, camp stove or wood fire can be used to boil water. Even microwave ovens can heat water to boiling. Tincture of iodine from a home medicine chest may be used to disinfect water. Follow these guidelines:
Number of Drops* of Tincture of Iodine
Volume of Water
Clean Water
Cloudy Water
One quart
5
10
One gallon
20
40
Mix water thoroughly and let stand for 30 minutes.
*5 drops = 1/3 of 1/8 teaspoon 10 drops = 2/3 of 1/8 teaspoon 20 drops = 2/3 of 1/4 teaspoon 40 drops = 1/4 teaspoon plus 1/3 of 1/4 teaspoon
A few drops of chlorine bleach can be added to a gallon of water in an emergency or on a camping trip. Use these measurements:
Available Chlorine in Bleach
Number of Drops* of Chlorine Bleach to Disinfect One Gallon of Water
Clean Water
Cloudy Water
5.25%
8
16
Mix water thoroughly and let stand for 30 minutes.
*8 drops = 1/2 of 1/8 teaspoon 16 drops = 1/8 teaspoon
Chlorine and iodine tablets are available in drug stores and camping or sporting goods stores. Follow the directions on the container. Store disinfected water in clean, covered containers. All water used for drinking, cooking, preparing beverages and brushing teeth should be disinfected. For more information on disinfection of water systems, call or visit your county Extension office and ask for Bulletin 765, Bacteria in Drinking Water.
Funded in whole or in part from Grant Number U05/CCU506070-01, "Cooperative Agreement Program for Agricultural Health Promotion Systems," and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
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VI.
Solar water disinfection
You can look up on the internet for many other disinfection ideas such as Solar….
How to purify water
